氏名　カーン　スニール　クマル
学位の種類　博士（工学）
学位記番号　博甲第247号
学位授与の日付　平成14年3月25日
学位論文題目　An assessment on the status and trend of surface water pollution and management in developing countries　（開発途上国における水環境汚染の現況分析と水域管理政策の国際比較）
論文審査委員
　主査　教授　原田　秀樹
　副査　助教授　大橋　晶良
　副査　助教授　小松　俊哉
　副査　助教授　李　志東
　副査　九州大学大学院　工学研究科教授　楠田　哲也

• 論文目次
• 論文要旨

［平成13（2001）年度博士論文題名一覧］ ［博士論文題名一覧］に戻る．

1　Introduction
1.1　Background　p.1
1.2　Objectives of this study　p.3
1.3　General methodology of the study　p.4
1.3.1　Study area　p.4
1.3.2　Data sources and studies　p.4
2　Literatures Review
2.1　Freshwater Resources　p.7
2.2　Principles of water pollution control　p.8
2.3　Water Pollution and health　p.8
2.4　Water quality issues in Asian region　p.9
2.5　Urbanization in developing countries　p.10
2.6　Urbanization and environment　p.11
2.7　Global water supply and sanitation coverage　p.12
2.8　Poor and poverty line　p.12
2.9　Urban poverty and environment　p.14
3　Country studies on status and trend of water pollution
3.1　Kathmandu Valley and Bagmati River, Nepal　p.16
3.1.1　Population and Urbanization　p.16
3.1.2　Water resources　p.17
3.1.3　State of water quality and pollution　p.19
3.1.4　Past trend in water qualities　p.21
3.1.5　Assessment of pollution load　p.21
3.1.6　Heavy metals in Bagmati River　p.22
3.2　Ganges River Basin, India
3.2.1　Introduction　p.23
3.2.2　Population and Urbanization　p.23
3.2.3　Poverty and Slums in Urban areas　p.26
3.2.4　The Ganges River System- Water Resources　p.27
3.2.5　Pollution of Ganges River （main stem）　p.30
3.2.6　Recent trend in dry season BOD of Ganges　p.33
3.2.7　BOD load in flowing water　p.33
3.2.8　Pollution of Yamuna River　p.34
3.2.9　Trend in water quality　p.36
3.2.10　Pollution load　p.37
3.3　Urban rivers of Dhaka, Bangladesh
3.3.1　Urbanization　p.38
3.3.2　Migration and Urban Poverty　p.38
3.3.3　Water resources　p.39
3.3.4　Pollution of peripheral rivers　p.41
3.3.5　Trend in water quality　p.43
3.4　Chao Phraya River （lower） in Thailand
3.4.1　Population and Urbanization　p.44
3.4.2　Chao Phraya River Basin　p.45
3.4.3　Water quality of chao phraya in Bangkok region　p.46
3.4.4　Seasonal variation in water quality　p.48
3.4.5　Annual trend in water quality　p.49
3.5　Pasig River system, Metro Manila, Philippines
3.5.1　Population and Urbanization　p.51
3.5.2　Water resources　p.51
3.5.3　Pollution of pasig River system　p.54
3.5.4　Past trend in Pasig River pollution　p.56
3.5.5　State of water quality in Laguna Lake　p.57
3.5.6　Past trend in water quality of Laguna Lake　p.58
3.6　Hanoi, Vietnam
3.6.1　Population and Urbanization　p.59
3.6.2　Water resources　p.59
3.6.3　Urban water pollution in Hanoi　p.61
3.6.4　Trend in Pollution　p.64
3.7　Summary and Conclusion of this Chapter　p.65
4　Field water quality assessment under this study
4.1　Water quality assessment of urban water bodies in Metro Manila
4.1.1　Introduction　p.66
4.1.2　Materials and Methods　p.66
4.1.3　Results and discussions　p.66
4.1.4　Pollution level and WQS　p.71
4.2　Water quality assessment of Niger River and drains at Niamey, Niger
4.2.1　Introduction　p.73
4.2.2　Ecological degradation of Niger River　p.74
4.2.3　Materials and Methods　p.75
4.2.4　Results and discussions　p.76
4.2.5　Conclusion　p.77
5　Application of NSF's WQI to Asian Rivers
5.1　Introduction　p.78
5.1.1　Mathematical structure of index determination　p.78
5.1.2　Various water quality indices　p.79
5.2　National sanitation Foundation's WQI　p.79
5.3　Results of application of NSFWQI to Asian rivers　p.81
5.3.1　Bagmati River, Kathmandu Valley　p.81
5.3.2　Ganges River Basin　p.82
5.3.3　Chao Phraya River　p.82
5.3.4　Pasig River and Laguna Lake　p.83
5.4　Summary and Conclusion of this Chapter　p.85
6　Status of Urban sanitation, Pollution sources and Loads
6.1　Kathmandu Valley and Bagmati River, Nepal　p.86
6.1.1　Sewerage and sanitation　p.86
6.1.2　Wastewater treatment　p.86
6.1.3　Pollution sources and loads　p.86
6.1.4　Industrial Pollution　p.87
6.2　Ganges Basin, India
6.2.1　Sources of Pollution　p.87
6.2.2　Urban Pollution Sources　p.87
6.2.3　Industrial Pollution　p.91
6.2.4　Non-point source pollution in Ganges　p.91
6.2.5　Pesticides in the Ganges　p.91
6.2.6　Nutrient wash-off from agricultural land　p.93
6.2.7　Pollution due to bathing activities in Ganges　p.93
6.3　Dhaka, Bangladesh
6.3.1　Sewerage　p.95
6.3.2　Wastewater treatment　p.95
6.3.3　Toilets and sanitation　p.95
6.3.4　Sources of pollution and loading　p.96
6.3.5　Industrial Pollution　p.96
6.4　Bangkok, Thailand
6.4.1　Sewerage　p.97
6.4.2　Night soil collection and treatment　p.97
6.4.3　Solid waste disposal　p.98
6.4.4　Sewage Treatment plants　p.98
6.4.5　Pollution load　p.99
6.5　Metro Manila, Philippines
6.5.1　Sewerage　p.100
6.5.2　On-site sanitation　p.100
6.5.3　Pollution sources and loads　p.101
6.6　Hanoi, Vietnam
6.6.1　Sanitation system in Hanoi City　p.101
6.6.2　Sewerage　p.102
6.6.3　Wastewater treatment　p.102
6.6.4　Toilet facilities　p.102
6.6.5　Solid waste disposal　p.102
6.7　Niamey City, Niger
6.7.1　Sewerage　p.103
6.7.2　Toilets and Night soil Management　p.103
6.7.3　Solid waste disposal　p.104
6.8　Summary and Conclusion of this chapter　p.104
7　Environmental Health impacts of poor water supply and sanitation （survey）
7.1　Introduction　p.106
7.2　Slums in India and Mumbai　p.107
7.3　Study area and methodology　p.108
7.3.1　Study site characteristics　p.108
7.3.2　Sampling and data collection　p.108
7.4　Results and Discussion　p.110
7.4.1　Socio-economic profile　p.110
7.4.2　Environmental Living conditions　p.114
7.4.3　Environmental health Conditions　p.119
7.4.4　Statistical analysis of data　p.122
7.4.5　People's attitude and priority issues　p.124
7.5　Conclusion　p.125
8　Water Pollution Control Policies and Instruments in Asian region
8.1　Introduction　p.127
8.2　Review on general pollution control approaches and instruments　p.127
8.3　Legislative and regulatory measures in Asia　p.129
8.3.1　Development of legal system in water pollution control　p.129
8.3.2　Status and Components of environmental laws in Asia　p.131
8.3.3　Classification of water resources and water quality standards　p.132
8.3.4　Effluent standards and pollution discharge control　p.134
8.4　Economic （market-based） Instruments　p.135
8.5　Environmental Administration　p.137
8.6　Some critical issues in pollution control in developing countries　p.138
8.7　Conclusion　p.139
9　Targetted water pollution abatement and River rehabilitation programs in Asia
9.1　Ganga Action Plan （GAP） in India　p.141
9.1.1　First scientific study on Ganges　p.141
9.1.2　GAP model and Phase-I　p.141
9.1.3　GAP Phase II　p.143
9.1.4　Yamuna Action Plan （YAP）　p.144
9.1.5　Impact on water quality of Ganges　p.145
9.1.6　Shortcomings of GAP-I　p.149
9.2　Pasig River Rehabilitation Program （PRRP）
9.2.1　Introduction of the program　p.150
9.2.2　Major thrust area for water quality improvement　p.151
9.2.3　Impact of PRRP on water quality　p.151
9.2.4　Challenges　p.151
9.3　Conclusion　p.152
10　Overall Conclusion and recommendations
10.1　Conclusions　p.153
10.2　Recommendations　p.156
References　p.157
Appendices
Appendix 7.1- Poverty level income based on Normative food requirement　p.164
Appendix 8.1- Inland surface water quality standards in Asian countries　p.165
Appendix 8.2- Effluent standards in Asian countries　p.180
Appendix 8.3- Application of economic instruments in Asian countries　p.185
Appendix 8.4- Drinking water quality standards in various countries　p.187

Rapid urbanization and industrialization occurring in the developing countries have had serious consequences on natural resources and human living environment. Water Pollution and freshwater depletion are one of such currently viewed as top environmental problem in Asian region. Due to lack of adequate sanitation and pollution control measures, urban areas have become a major cause of pollution of the rivers. On the other hand, urban living environment is also precarious and urban poor, in particular, are more vulnerable to water-related diseases. This research was primarily aimed at studying on such aspects of pollution of urban water resources and related environmental issues in developing countries. The study area included mainly of South and East Asian region, namely, Bagmati River at Kathmandu valley in Nepal, Ganges river basin in India, Rivers around Dhaka in Bangladesh, Chao Phraya River in Thailand, Pasig River system in Philippines, Rivers at Hanoi and Niger River at Niamey, Niger, Africa.
This study envisages both the primary and secondary data and analysis on water quality and pollution assessment of the rivers. The secondary data have been collected rigorously from country visits and search of literatures. This report also includes results of a field survey conducted on urban poor of Mumbai City in India investigated on the public health impacts of poor water supply and sanitation.
Pollution of rivers is found severe in all the countries studied, principal contaminants being organic matter, pathogens and heavy metal such as, Chromium, Lead and Mercury. In Nepal, India and Bangledesh, the main problem is high BOD and Total Coliform whereas low dissolved oxygen is more pronounced in the Chao Phraya River. In overall, BOD is 2 to 50 times higher than desired level and coliform in the order of 105-107 MPN/100 ml in the rivers. In Nepal and India, problem in summer season has been exacerbated due to Low River discharges. The heavy metals of serious concern are Chromium and Lead in Buriganga River of Dhaka, and Mercury and Zinc in the surface and groundwater of Metro Manila. Untreated municipal sewage has been, by far, the major pollution load contributor where as industrial sources shares 14 to 18% of total pollution load. In Kathmandu and Delhi, pollution was found increasing nearly in step with the population growth rates of the cities. Coverage of sewerage doesn't exceed 40% and treatment of municipal sewage barely more than 15% in these cities.
Field survey conducted on urban poor revealed unexpectedly high incidence of water-related diseases. About one-fourth of all illness at any time could be accounted for water-related infections. The annual cases of Diarrhoea, Typhoid and Malaria were found up to 614, 68 and 126 per thousand populations respectively. Besides sanitation the impact of poverty and literacy is significant on the present situation as evidenced by intra-urban poor gradient existed among four different communities studied.
Water pollution control laws and institutions are under formulation or expansion phase basically corresponding to the level of socio-economic development of the countries. The major weaknesses are found due to inadequate detailing of laws and poor enforcement of existing regulations. However, the overall awareness on pollution controls issues can be said yet increasing. This study has also reviewed the approaches and outcomes of River action plans, namely, the Ganga Action Plan in India and Pasig River Rehabilitation Program in Philippines, a part of water quality management program, and sorted out some issues of concern.